Everything about Exonyms totally explained
An
exonym (from
Greek exo = out;
onoma = name) is a
name for a place that isn't used within that place by the local inhabitants (neither in the official language of the state nor in local languages
Exonyms can also be divided into native and borrowed (for example, from a third language). For example, Slovene uses the native exonyms
Dunaj (Danube) and
Benetke (Venice), but the exonyms
Kijev (Kyiv) and
Vilna (Vilnius), borrowed from Russian and German, respectively.
Tendencies in the development of exonyms
Exonyms develop for places of special significance for speakers of the language of the exonym. Consequently, most European capitals have English exonyms, for example
Athens (Αθήνα/Athína),
Belgrade (Београд/Beograd),
Bucharest (Bucureşti),
Brussels (Bruxelles, Brussel),
Copenhagen (København),
Moscow (Москва/Moskva),
Nicosia (Λευκωσία/Lefkosía),
Prague (Praha),
Rome (Roma),
Vienna (Wien) or
Warsaw (Warszawa). For places considered to be of lesser significance, attempts to reproduce local names have been made in English since the time of the
Crusades.
Livorno, to take an instance, was
Leghorn because it was an Italian port essential to English merchants and, by the 18th century, to the British navy. Not far away, a minor port on the same sea like
Rapallo never received an exonym.
In earlier times, the name of the first tribe or village encountered became the exonym for the whole people beyond. Thus, the Romans used the tribal name of
Graecus (Greek), the Russians used the village name of
Chechen, medieval Europeans took the tribal name
Tatar as emblematic for the whole
Mongolic confederation (and then confused it with
Tartarus, a word for Hell, to produce
Tartar), and the
Magyar invaders were equated to the 500 years earlier
Hunnish invaders in the same territory, and were appellated
Hungarians.
The
Germanic invaders of the
Roman Empire applied the word "
Walha" to foreigners they encountered and this evolved in West Germanic languages as a generic name for all non-Germanic speakers; thence, the names
Wallachia,
Vlachs,
Wallonia,
Walloons,
Wales,
Wallasey, and even the Polish name for Italy,
Włochy. Standard folk etymology has it that the
Slavic peoples erroneously referred to the Germanic Europeans as "mute", as their languages were incompatible, and the
Russian word for Germans even today is still that,
nemtsy (немцы). The
Serbian word is homophonous to the Russian but is spelled "Nemci", while the
Croatian and
Romanian languages have adopted the forms "Nijemci" and "Nemţi" respectively. This etymology is unreliable at best and it's more likely that the Slavic exonym derives from the
Nemetes, an ancient German tribe mentioned by
Tacitus and
Julius Caesar. It is worth pointing out, though, that the meaning of "Slavs" and "Slavic" comes most probably from the slavic word "Slovo" (hence "sloveni"), meaning "word"/"speaking"/"speech". In this context, the way Slavic people address Germanic people - "mute" - as opposed to themselves - "the speaking people" - certainly makes sense.
White settlers in
South Africa thought the
Khoi-San natives gabbled nonsense syllables, so they called them
Hottentots. Two millennia earlier, the Greeks thought all non-Greek speakers spoke gibberish like
bar-bar-bar, so they called them all
barbarians, which eventually gave rise to the exonym
Berber.
In the late 20th century the use of exonyms often became controversial. Groups often prefer that outsiders avoid exonyms where they've come to be used in a
pejorative way; for example,
Romani people prefer that term over exonyms like
Gypsy (from
Egypt), or the French term
bohème (from
Bohemia), or the Spanish term
flamenco (from
Flanders). People may also seek to avoid exonyms due to historical sensitivities, as in the case of German names for Polish and Czech places which used to be ethnically or politically German (for example Danzig/Gdańsk), much like Russian placenames being used for locations once under its control (for example Kiev/Kyiv).
In recent years,
geographers have sought to reduce the use of exonyms to avoid these kind of problems. For example, it's now common for Spanish speakers to refer to the
Turkish capital as
Ankara rather than use the Spanish exonym
Angora, still in use for types of cat, goat and rabbit.
But according to the
United Nations Statistics Division: "Time has, however, shown that initial ambitious attempts to rapidly decrease the number of exonyms were over-optimistic and not possible to realise in the intended way. The reason would appear to be that many exonyms have become common words in a language and can be seen as part of the language’s cultural heritage."
In English, attempts to skirt a familiar exonym in order to accurately reproduce an endonym often appear pretentious, a device used to comic effect in
E.F. Benson's novels concerning Miss Mapp and Lucia.
Other difficulties with endonyms have to do with pronunciation, spelling and word category. The endonym may include sounds which are highly unfamiliar to speakers of other languages, making appropriate usage difficult if not impossible for an outsider. Over the years, phonetic changes may happen to the endonym either in the original language or the borrowing language, thus changing an endonym into an exonym (as in the case of
Paris previously mentioned, where the
s was formerly pronounced in French). In many cases no standardized spelling is available either because the language itself is unwritten (even unanalyzed) or because there are competing non-standard spellings. Use of a misspelled endonym is perhaps more problematic than the respectful use of an existing exonym. Finally, an endonym may be simply a plural noun and doesn't extend itself to adjectival usage in another language like English which has a propensity to use the adjectives for describing culture and language. The attempt to use the endonym thus has a bizarre-sounding result.
The name for a language and a people are often different terms, of course, which is a complication for an outsider.
Sometimes the government of a country tries to endorse the use of an endonym instead of traditional exonyms outside the country:
- In 1985 the government of Côte d'Ivoire requested that the country's French name be used in all languages instead of exonyms such as Ivory Coast, so that Côte d'Ivoire is now the official English name of that country in the United Nations and the International Olympic Committee (see Name of Côte d'Ivoire).
- The Ukrainian government maintains that the capital of Ukraine should be called Kyiv in English because the traditional English exonym Kiev was derived from the Russian name Kiyev (Киев) (see Kiev: City name evolution).
- The Belarusian government argues that the endonym Belarus should be used in all languages and has been rather successful in English, where the former exonym Byelorussia, still used with reference to the Soviet Republic, has virtually died out, whereas in other languages exonyms like German, Danish, Swedish, Dutch, Icelandic, Faroese (all literally 'White Russia') or French are still much more common than Belarus (see History of the name Belarus).
- In 1989 the military regime of Burma requested that the English name of the country be Myanmar, with Myanma as the adjective of the country and Bamar as the name of the inhabitants (see Names of Burma).
Confusion with renaming
Exonyms and endonyms must not be confused with the results of
geographical renaming as in the case of
Saint Petersburg, which became Petrograd in 1914, Leningrad in 1924, and Saint Petersburg (Санкт-Петербург - Sankt-Peterburg) again in 1991. In this case, although
St Petersburg has a German etymology, this was never a German exonym for the city between 1914 and 1991, just as
Nieuw Amsterdam, the Dutch name of
New York City until 1664, isn't its Dutch exonym.
The old place names outdated after renaming are afterwards often used as
historicisms. Consequently, even today one would talk about the
Siege of Leningrad, not the Siege of St. Petersburg, because at that time (1941-1944) the city was called Leningrad. Likewise, one would say that
Immanuel Kant was born in Königsberg in 1724, not in
Kaliningrad, as it has been called since 1946.
Sometimes, however, historical names are deliberately not used because of nationalist tendencies to linguistically lay claim to a city's past. As a case in point, the on the 1805
Peace of Pressburg doesn't use either of the city's names then in use (the Slovakian
Prešporok or the official, that's German,
Pressburg), but today's name
Bratislava, which became the city's name only in 1919. It's interesting that for two months (in
1918) the name of Bratislava was
Wilson city (the Slovakian
Wilsonovo mesto) in honor of
Woodrow Wilson, the twenty-eighth
President of the United States.
The name
Madras, now
Chennai, may be a special case. When the city was first settled by Englishmen, in the early 1600s, both names were in use. Possibly they referred to different villages which were fused into the new settlement. In any case, Madras became the exonym, while more recently, Chennai became the endonym.
Likewise,
Istanbul is still called Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολη) in Greek, despite the name having been changed in Turkish (and other languages) between 1923 and 1930.
Orthographic exonymy in languages with phonetic spelling
There are at least three known languages in Europe in which the use of seeming exonyms (in terms of spelling but not necessarily pronunciation) for places and people is actually the
norm and not an exception: Latvian, Lithuanian and Serbian, all having
Latin-based script, transcribe foreign proper names whenever necessary, including those originally written in Latin script. The reasons are the respective nations' preference for their own consistent
phonetic spelling and the need to add native
inflectional endings to most nouns. The resulting advantage is that reading and spelling in these languages remain easy (knowledge of how to spell any unadapted foreign words isn't required); a disadvantage is that foreigners may erroneously complain that their names have been "misspelled". In reality, the phonetic transcription is often more correct: for example,
Varšava,
Varšuvas,
Varšava (in Latvian, Lithuanian and Serbian, respectively), with [
v] and [
ʃ], is phonetically closer to the original Polish
Warszawa than the English
Warsaw [
wɔː
rsɒː].
List of English exonyms for peoples
| Exonym |
Endonym |
| Albanian |
Shqiptarë ("Eagles") |
| Arabs |
al-`Arab (in Arabic, العرب) |
| Argentinian(s) or Argentines |
Argentinos |
| Armenians |
Hayer (Հայեր) |
| Berbers |
Amazigh (singular), Imazighen (plural), spelt as Amaziγ (Imaziγen) |
| Basque |
Euskaldunak |
| Bosnian |
Bosanci i Hercegovci |
| Brazilian(s) |
Brasileiro(s) |
| Bulgarians |
Българи (Bǎlgari) |
| Byzantine(s) (Eastern Roman Empire) |
Rhomaioi (Greek: Ρωμαιοι) ("Romans") |
| Catalan(s), |
Català (singular), Catalans (plural). |
| Chechen(s) |
Noxçuo (singular), Noxçi (plural) |
| Cherokee(s) |
Aniyunwiya |
| Cheyenne(s) |
Tsistsista ("People") |
| Chilean(s) |
Chileno (masc.)/Chilena (fem.) |
| Chinese |
Zhōngguó rén (中国人 (simpl.) 中國人 (trad.), "People of the Middle's country") or Huá rén (华人 simpl., 華人trad.) |
| Cornish |
Kernowek, Kernewek, Curnoack |
| Croats |
Hrvati |
| Czechs |
Češi |
| Danes |
Danskere |
| Indian |
Deshi |
| Dutch |
Nederlanders ("Lowlanders") |
| Ecuadorians |
Ecuatorianos ("Equatorians") |
| Ancient Egyptians |
rmţ km·t ("People of the Black Land") |
| Modern Egyptians |
Maṣreyyīn (Egyptian Vernacular) |
| Eskimo (west Alaska and Russian Far East) |
Yup'ik (meaning "People") |
| Eskimo (east Alaska, Canada, and Greenland) |
Inuit (meaning "People") |
| Estonians |
eestlased |
| Etruscans |
Rasenna |
| Faroese |
Føroyingar |
| Filipino |
Pilipino, Pinoy (informal, the suffix -oy denoting a diminutive or term of endearment) |
| Finns |
suomalaiset (root: suomalais-, singular suomalainen "a Finn") |
| French |
Français ("Francish") |
| Fula or Fulani |
singular: Pullo ; plural: Fulɓe |
| Gaels |
Gaeilge ("Gaeil") |
| Georgians |
Kartveli Eri (ქართველი ერი) or Kartvelebi (ქართველები) |
| Germans |
Deutsche |
| Greeks |
(Ellines, Hellènes) |
| Greenlanders |
Kalaallit in Greenlandic |
| Gypsies |
Romani people |
| Hawaiians |
Kānaka maoli |
| Hittite, Hittites, Hittish |
Neshumanash (Ne·esh·umana·ash: "This-many twinsom-one", where umun in Emesal: "fellow"), Neshumnesh (Ne·esh·umin·esh: "This-many twinsoms-many") for its kinsfolk; Hattic: Neshili (Ne·esh·ili: "This-many-ish") for its speech and speakers |
| Hungarians |
Magyarok |
| Icelanders |
Íslendingar |
| The Iroquois |
Haudenosaunee ("The League of Peace and Power") |
| Israelis |
Yiśrā'elīm (ישראלים) |
| Japanese |
Nihonjin (E. "Sunspringfolk", L. "Solorigopuo") |
| Jews |
Hebrew: singular: Yehūdī (יְהוּדִי); plural: Yehūdīm (יְהוּדִים)
Ladino: singular: Djudio (ג׳ודיו); plural: Djudios (ג׳ודיוס)
Yiddish: singular: Yid (ייִד); plural: Yidn (ייִדן) |
| South Koreans |
Hanguksaram or Hangugin |
| North Koreans |
Chosŏnsaram |
| Lapps |
sámit or sápmelaččat |
| Lithuanians |
Lietuviai |
| Malay |
Orang Melayu |
| Mexicans |
Mexicano (Male) Mexicana (Female) |
| Mohawk(s) |
Kanienkeha ("Flint people") |
| Mordvins |
Erzya and Moksha (Two closely related peoples with two separate literary languages,) |
| Moroccan |
Maghrabi ("Westerners") |
| Nicaraguan |
Nicaragüense, Nicoya, Nica |
| Norwegians |
Nordmenn ("North men") |
| Papago tribe |
Tohono O'odham ("People of the Desert") |
| Persians |
Īrānīān (in Persian, ايرانيان) |
| Poles |
Polacy ("Plainsmen") |
| Portuguese |
Portugueses |
| Puerto Ricans |
puertorriqueños, riqueños, puertorros (informal), boricua (Lokono "The one of the Altive Lord's land") |
| Russians |
(noun and adjective) Русский (Rússkiy - male), Русская (Rússkaya - female), Русские (Rússkiye - plural) |
| Romanians |
Români |
| Quechua |
Runa ("People") |
| Serbs |
Срби/Srbi |
| Seri people |
Comcaac (phonetically [koŋˈkɑːk]); singular: Cmiique (phonetically [ˈkw̃ĩːkːɛ]) |
| Sioux |
Dakota or Lakota ("Allies") |
| Slovaks |
Slováci |
| Slovenes, Slovenians |
Slovenci |
| Spanish, Spaniards |
Españoles |
| Sumerians |
Un[ga] Sangi[ga] (Un[·ga] Sang·ngi[·ga]: "Folk [suchof the] Head-black [such]") |
| Swedes |
Svenskar |
| Swiss |
Schweizer (German) / Suisses (French) / Svizzeri (Italian) / Schwiizer, Schwyzer (Swiss German); all derived from the name of the canton of Schwyz |
| Szeklers |
Székely |
| Thais |
คนไทย (Khon Thai) |
| Tibetans |
bodpa |
| Turks |
Türkler |
| Ukrainians |
Ukrayintsi (in Ukrainian Українці) |
| Venezuelans |
Venezolanos |
| Vlachs |
Român/Rumân Romanian; Armân/Rumân Aromanian; Rumân/Rumâr Istro-Romanians ("Romans") |
| Welsh |
Cymraeg |
List of English exonyms for German toponyms
List of creators of exonyms
List of country exonyms
| Exonym |
Endonym |
| Albania |
Shqipëria |
| Algeria |
al-Jazā’ir (الجزائر) ("The Islands") |
| Armenia |
Hayastan (Հայաստան: "the land of Haik"); see Armenia: Origin of the name |
| Aztec Empire |
Mexìcâ (Mexihcah) or Tenochca |
| Bahrain |
al-Baḥrayn (البحرين) |
| Belarus |
Byelarus' (Беларусь) |
| Bhutan |
Druk Yul ("Dragon Land") |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina |
Bosna i Hercegovina |
| Brazil |
Brasil |
| Bulgaria |
България (Bălgariya) |
| The Byzantine Empire |
Romania (Pωμανια). Derived from the "Roman Empire". |
| Cambodia |
Prâteh Kâmpŭchea (ប្រទេសកម្ពុជា) (but "Kingdom of Cambodia" is the current official name in English) |
| China |
Zhōngguó (中国 (simpl.), 中國 (trad.)) ("Central Kingdom"); see Names of China |
| Croatia |
Hrvatska |
| Czech Republic |
Česká republika, short form Česko (Czechia) |
| Ancient Egypt |
km·t ("The Black Land") |
| Modern Egypt |
Miṣr (مصر) in Arabic, Maṣr in Egyptian dialect; means "a country" or "a state" |
| Estonia |
Eesti |
| Finland |
Suomi |
| Georgia |
Sakartvelo (საქართველო); see Georgia (country): Origin of the name |
| Germany |
Deutschland; see Names for Germany |
| Greece |
Ellás (Ελλάς) or Elládha (Ελλάδα) |
| Greenland |
Kalaallit Nunaat ("Land of the Greenlanders") |
| Hindustan |
Bhārat (भारत) in Hindi, but India is officially recognized too; see Origin of India's name; also Hindustan [Indianendonym] |
| Holland |
Nederland ("low land") "The Netherlands" is the formal English name, but Holland, the name of a region of the Netherlands, is used colloquially in English to refer to the whole country. |
| Hungary |
Magyarország ("Magyar Land") |
| Inca Empire |
Tawantinsuyu ("Four Corners") |
| India |
Bhārat (भारत) in Hindi, but India is officially recognized too; see Origin of India's name; also Hindustan [Indianendonym] |
| Iraq |
al-ʕiˈrɑːq (العراق - al-`Irāq) (ʕ for `ayn consonant, not present in English) |
| Israel |
Yiśrā'el (ישראל) |
| Italy |
Italia |
| Japan |
Nihon (also:Nippon) (日本, see Names of Japan) |
| Jordan |
al-Urdunn (الأردنّ) |
| Korea |
Chosŏn (Joseon) (조선 / 朝鮮) in North Korea and Hanguk (한국 / 韓國) in South Korea, but Goryeo (고려 / 高麗), the source of Korea, is used as neutral name for Korea; see Names of Korea |
| Lebanon |
Lubnān (لبنان) |
| Libya |
Lībiyā (ليبيا) |
| Lithuania |
Lietuva |
| Maldives |
Dhivehi raajj'e ("The Islands of Dhivehi People" in Dhivehi language; see History of the Maldives) |
| Mauritania |
Mūrītāniyā (موريتانيا) |
| Montenegro |
Crna Gora / Црна Гора ("black mountain" in Serbian; see History of Montenegro: Etymology) |
| Morocco |
al-Maghrib (المغرب al-Maġrib)("The West" in Arabic; see also Maghrib and Maghreb) |
| Namibia |
Namibië |
| Norway |
Norge in Bokmål Norwegian and Noreg in Nynorsk Norwegian |
| Oman |
ʕumān or [`Umān] (عمان) (ʕ for `ayn consonant, not present in English) |
| Palestine |
Filasṭīn (فلسطين) |
| Persia |
Īrān (ايران) (The Land of Aryans) |
| Poland |
Polska |
| Philippines |
Pilipinas (in Tagalog) ([King] "Philip's" [Islands]) |
| Romania |
România |
| Qatar |
Qaṭar (قطر) |
| Russia |
Rossiya (Россия) |
| Saudi Arabia |
al-ʕarabiyya as-Suʕūdiyya (العربية السعودية - al-`Arabiyya as-Su`ūdiyya) (ʕ for `ayn consonant, not present in English) |
| Serbia |
Србија/Srbija |
| Singapore |
Malay: Singapura
Chinese: 新加坡 (Xīnjiāpō)
Tamil: சிங்கப்பூர் (Cingkappūr) |
| Slovakia |
Slovensko |
| Slovenia |
Slovenija |
| South Africa |
Suid-Afrika in Afrikaans |
| Spain |
Spanish and Galician: EspañaCatalan: Espanya
Basque: Espainia
Aranese: Espanha |
| Sudan |
as-Sūdān (السودان) |
| Sumer |
Kengi (Ki·en·gi: "Land [ofthe] lord-cultu[r]al/couthly"), Kengir (Ki·en·gir(>kiri): "Land [ofthe] lord-kithly(>nosely)"); ennen: lords |
| Sweden |
Sverige |
| Switzerland |
German: Schweiz
French: Suisse
Italian: Svizzera
Romansh: Svizra
Latin: Helvetia - used in some cases (on coins, for instance) to avoid favouring one of the four languages. |
| Syria |
Sūriyā (سوريا) |
| Thailand |
ประเทศไทย (Prathet Thai) |
| Tunisia |
Tūnis (تونس) |
| Turkey |
Türkiye |
| Ukraine |
Ukrayina (Україна) |
| Wales |
Cymru |
| Yemen |
al-Yaman (اليمن) |
List of geographical region exonyms
| Exonym |
Endonym |
| Amoy |
: Ē-mn̂g (Amoy vernacular POJ), Xiàmén (Mandarin pinyin) |
| Andalusia |
Andalucía (from Arabic al-Andalus, derived from Latin vandalus after the Germanic Vandals who settled in Hispania Baetica with the collapse of Roman rule. The Arabic term was given by the Arabs to their Spanish possessions after Islamic conquest — not really an exonym, just the old Spanish pronunciation, in fact still pronounced that way by many Andalusians) |
| Bangkok |
กรุงเทพฯ (Krung Thep) |
| Basque Country |
Euskadi (Basque), País Vasco (Spanish), Vascongadas (Spanish, before the 1970s, not in use today; also as adjective: "Provincias Vascongadas") |
| Bavaria |
Bayern |
| Bohemia (derived from Boiohaemum, Germanic for "the home of the Boii," a Celtic people) |
Čechy, not to mix with Česko, short name for Czechia (Czech Republic). |
| Bosnia |
Bosna |
| Canton |
(; Jyutping : Gwong²zau¹) |
| Carinthia |
Kärnten |
| Carpathians |
Romanian: Carpaţi; Polish:Karpaty, Czech, and Slovak: Karpaty; Ukrainian: Карпати (Karpáty); Russian: Карпаты (Karpáty); German: Karpaten; Serbian: Karpati / Карпати; Hungarian: Kárpátok |
| Castile |
Castilla: same word with different pronunciation, English uses French name — not an exonym |
| Catalonia |
Catalunya (Catalan), Cataluña (Spanish): not really an exonym, just the formal "Latinized" version, created by Catalans themselves when writing in Latin |
| Caucasus |
Kavkaz (Кавка́з in Russian) |
| Crimea |
(in Ukrainian Крим - Krym, in Russian Крым - Krym, in Crimean Tatar Qırım) |
| Herzegovina |
Hercegovina |
| Hong Kong |
香港 (Yale (Cantonese): Hēunggóng, Pinyin (Mandarin): Xiānggǎng) |
| Judæa |
Yehūdāh (יהודה) |
| Lusatia |
Lausitz (German) / Łužica (Upper Sorbian) / Łužyca (Lower Sorbian) / Łużyce (Polish) / Lužice (Czech) |
| Macau / Macao |
: Ou3 Mun4 (Cantonese Jyutping), 澳门 Àomén (Mandarin Pinyin); Maa3 Gaau1 (Cantonese Jyutping) is commonly used.
|
| Moldavia |
Romanian: Moldova |
| Moravia |
Morava |
| Navarre |
Nafarroa (Basque), Navarra (Spanish); Basque Nafarroa → Spanish Navarra → French Navarre → English Navarre — just adapted pronunciation, not different roots |
| Oporto |
Porto. Oporto comes from "O Porto" which is portuguese for "The [city] Porto". |
| Samogitia |
Žemaitija in Lithuanian, Žemaitėjė in Samogitian |
| Siberia |
Sibir' (Сиби́рь) in Russian |
| Silesia |
Ślonsk (Silesian) / Śląsk (Polish) / Slezsko (Czech) / Schlesien (German) |
| Styria |
Steiermark (German) |
| Tibet |
བོད་ (Böd in Tibetan), 西藏 (Xīzàng in Chinese), 吐博 Tǔbó (historical Chinese, used by some Tibetans when speaking Chinese) |
| Transylvania |
Ardeal/Transilvania (Romanian) / Siebenbürgen (German) / Erdély (Hungarian) / Siedmiogród (Polish) |
| Transnistria |
Romanian: Transnistria ; Pridnestrovie (Приднестровье in Russian) |
| Urals |
Ural (in Russian: Ура́л) |
| Wallachia |
Ţara Românească / Muntenia / Valahia (Romanian) |
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